Experimental Mechanized Force
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The Experimental Mechanized Force (EMF) was a
brigade A brigade is a major tactical military formation that typically comprises three to six battalions plus supporting elements. It is roughly equivalent to an enlarged or reinforced regiment. Two or more brigades may constitute a division. Br ...
-sized formation of the
British Army The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom, a part of the British Armed Forces along with the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force. , the British Army comprises 79,380 regular full-time personnel, 4,090 Gurk ...
. It was officially formed on 1 May 1927 to investigate and develop the techniques and equipment required for
armoured warfare Armoured warfare or armored warfare (mechanized forces, armoured forces or armored forces) (American English; American and British English spelling differences#-our, -or, see spelling differences), is the use of armoured fighting vehicle, armo ...
and was the first armoured formation of its kind in the world. It was renamed the Armoured Force the following year. The
Royal Air Force The Royal Air Force (RAF) is the United Kingdom's air and space force. It was formed towards the end of the First World War on 1 April 1918, becoming the first independent air force in the world, by regrouping the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) and ...
(RAF) took part in the exercises and demonstrated the value of ground–air co-operation. For two years the EMF participated in exercises which demonstrated the capabilities of mechanised forces against traditionally organised and trained
infantry Infantry is a military specialization which engages in ground combat on foot. Infantry generally consists of light infantry, mountain infantry, motorized infantry & mechanized infantry, airborne infantry, air assault infantry, and marine i ...
and
cavalry Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry ...
. The force was controversial in the army and was disbanded in February 1929. The EMF and AF were followed by experiments with a Tank Brigade in 1931, which had three mixed battalions of medium and light tanks and a battalion of Carden Loyd machine-gun carriers for reconnaissance.


Armoured warfare theory

In the aftermath of the
First World War World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
, several theorists sought ways to avoid a repetition of
trench warfare Trench warfare is a type of land warfare using occupied lines largely comprising military trenches, in which troops are well-protected from the enemy's small arms fire and are substantially sheltered from artillery. Trench warfare became a ...
, despite the war of movement from August to December 1914 costing the French and the Germans The trench warfare that followed had been less costly in men but attrition warfare was indecisive; limited objective attacks, under an umbrella of massed artillery-fire, could succeed but only at the cost of unlimited duration. In 1918, fighter-bombers had been attached to the
Tank Corps An armoured corps (also mechanized corps or tank corps) is a specialized military organization whose role is to conduct armoured warfare. The units belonging to an armoured corps include military staff, and are equipped with tanks and other armo ...
and bombed and machine-gunned positions blocking the advance. The weight of air attack had not been sufficient to overcome German resistance and the Tank Corps had still needed to pause until artillery caught up with the advance. Lieutenant-Colonel
Percy Hobart Major General Sir Percy Cleghorn Stanley Hobart, (14 June 1885 – 19 February 1957), also known as "Hobo", was a British military engineer noted for his command of the 79th Armoured Division during the Second World War. He was responsible for ...
transferred to the Tank Corps in 1923 and became something of an armoured warfare theorist, anticipating that faster tanks, self-propelled guns and much more support from RAF bombers, would allow an advance to move beyond the range of artillery. Major-General George Lindsay had been in command of armoured cars in Iraq and seen the effect of air support, which left him with an interest in armoured operations. Lindsay thought that the war of the future would be "the Mechanised force on the ground working with the Mechanised force in the air".
Trafford Leigh-Mallory Air Chief Marshal Sir Trafford Leigh-Mallory, (11 July 1892 – 14 November 1944) was a senior commander in the Royal Air Force. Leigh-Mallory served as a Royal Flying Corps pilot and squadron commander during the First World War. Remaining in th ...
, commander of the
School of Army Co-operation The School of Land/Air Warfare was a Royal Air Force school based at Old Sarum in Wiltshire. Its purpose was to encourage greater co-operation between officers in the air and those on the ground. History The School was originally established at ...
from 1927 to 1930, promoted the new thinking. Colonel
J. F. C. Fuller Major-General John Frederick Charles "Boney" Fuller (1 September 1878 – 10 February 1966) was a senior British Army officer, military historian, and strategist, known as an early theorist of modern armoured warfare, including categorising p ...
, Chief of Staff of the Tank Corps during the First World War and Chief instructor at the
Staff College, Camberley Staff College, Camberley, Surrey, was a staff college for the British Army and the presidency armies of British India (later merged to form the Indian Army). It had its origins in the Royal Military College, High Wycombe, founded in 1799, which i ...
in the 1920s, proposed an all-tank force, which would operate independently against enemy headquarters and lines of communication.
Basil Liddell Hart Sir Basil Henry Liddell Hart (31 October 1895 – 29 January 1970), commonly known throughout most of his career as Captain B. H. Liddell Hart, was a British soldier, military historian and military theorist. He wrote a series of military histo ...
, a retired officer, journalist and writer on
military theory Military theory is the analysis of normative behavior and trends in military affairs and military history, beyond simply describing events in war. Theories and conceptions of warfare have varied in different places throughout human history. T ...
, advocated mechanised forces of all arms, able to carry out operations of war other than the all-out offensive. Major
Giffard LeQuesne Martel Lieutenant-General Sir Giffard Le Quesne Martel (10 October 1889 – 3 September 1958) was a British Army Officer (armed forces), officer who served in both the World War I, First and World War II, Second World Wars. Familiarly known as "Q Marte ...
, at the Experimental Bridging Establishment, a former staff officer to Fuller, designed armoured vehicles as a sideline and proposed that tanks should be subordinated to infantry formations, while many cavalry officers maintained that the horse still had a part to play on a modern battlefield, despite the evidence of Western Front in the First World War.


Formation of the EMF


Experimental Force

During the early 1920s, Japan had been considered the most likely military threat to the British empire. Britain signed the
Locarno Treaties The Locarno Treaties were seven agreements negotiated at Locarno, Switzerland, during 5 to 16 October 1925 and formally signed in London on 1 December, in which the First World War Western European Allied powers and the new states of Central an ...
in 1925 in accepting a responsibility with France, Germany and Belgium, militarily to intervene if one power attacked any of the others but preparations for military intervention were not made. The size of the British Empire made it difficult for the Army to plan equipment and training, since it might have to fight in diverse terrains and climates needing different types of equipment and organisation. The
Cardwell Reforms The Cardwell Reforms were a series of reforms of the British Army undertaken by Secretary of State for War Edward Cardwell between 1868 and 1874 with the support of Liberal prime minister William Ewart Gladstone. Gladstone paid little attention ...
of 1868–1874 had linked the metropolitan army battalions with those on overseas service but this tended to reduce British-based units to training and reinforcement cadres. In September 1925 the army held its biggest exercise since 1914, part of which was to test new thinking on mechanised warfare. Three infantry divisions, one cavalry brigade and a tank battalion under the command of General
Philip Chetwode Field Marshal Philip Walhouse Chetwode, 1st Baron Chetwode, 7th Baronet of Oakley, (21 September 1869 – 6 July 1950), was a senior British Army officer. He saw action during the Second Boer War, during which he was present at the Siege of Ladys ...
exercised against an infantry division, two cavalry brigades and a tank brigade commanded by General
Alexander Godley General Sir Alexander John Godley, (4 February 1867 – 6 March 1957) was a senior British Army officer. He is best known for his role as commander of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force and II Anzac Corps during the First World War. Born in ...
. On day 1, Godley formed a mobile force with the cavalry brigades, a motorised infantry brigade and artillery to attack part of the Chetwode force. The infantry disembarked from their lorries from their jumping-off points and took too long to arrive. The cavalry horses, also carried on lorries, got mixed up with the infantry transport. On day 3, Chetwode sent his tank battalion on a outflanking manoeuvre but his infantry divisions failed to pin down Godley's units which were easily able to retreat. The exercises showed that the British had much of the equipment necessary for mechanised and armoured warfare but not the theoretical framework to make them effective. The Secretary of State for War, Sir
Laming Worthington-Evans Sir Worthington Laming Worthington-Evans, 1st Baronet, (23 August 1868 – 14 February 1931) was a British Conservative politician. Background and education Born Laming Evans, he was the son of Worthington Evans and Susanah Laming. He assumed t ...
announced in March 1926 the formation of an experimental all-arms force. In February 1926, General
George Milne Field Marshal George Francis Milne, 1st Baron Milne, (5 November 1866 – 23 March 1948) was a senior British Army officer who served as Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS) from 1926 to 1933. He served in the Second Boer War and during ...
, the General Officer Commanding (GOC) Eastern Command became the
Chief of the Imperial General Staff The Chief of the General Staff (CGS) has been the title of the professional head of the British Army since 1964. The CGS is a member of both the Chiefs of Staff Committee and the Army Board. Prior to 1964, the title was Chief of the Imperial G ...
(CIGS). Milne was suspicious of German intentions, circulated reports on German military potential and began to plan an army capable of resisting German aggression, despite post-war cuts in the Army Estimates. Continental warfare would need expensive equipment of little use in other parts of the world, where British commitments had increased since 1914. Following vacillation by the War Office and pressure from Fuller and Lindsay, the Inspector of the
Royal Tank Corps The Royal Tank Regiment (RTR) is the oldest tank unit in the world, being formed by the British Army in 1916 during the First World War. Today, it is the armoured regiment of the British Army's 12th Armoured Infantry Brigade. Formerly known as t ...
, Milne arranged for the formation of the Experimental Mechanized Force in May 1927. Milne was already inclined against the pure tank theorists and organised the force as a balanced, all-arms command, which amounted to a prototype armoured division, as far as resources allowed. Fuller was considered for appointment as commander of the force, combined with command of the 7th Infantry Brigade (Brigadier Robert Collins) and the administrative responsibilities connected with the garrison of
Tidworth Tidworth is a garrison town and civil parish in south-east Wiltshire, England, on the eastern edge of Salisbury Plain. Lying on both sides of the A338 about north of the A303 primary route, the town is approximately west of Andover, south o ...
. In what became known as the Tidworth Affair, Fuller turned down the appointment and resigned from the Army, because the War Office refused to allot extra staff to assist him. Fuller believed he would be unable to devote himself to the force, its methods and tactics. Liddell Hart wrote an article in the 22 April edition of the ''
Daily Telegraph Daily or The Daily may refer to: Journalism * Daily newspaper, newspaper issued on five to seven day of most weeks * ''The Daily'' (podcast), a podcast by ''The New York Times'' * ''The Daily'' (News Corporation), a defunct US-based iPad new ...
'' alleging that the Army was reneging on its commitment to assemble an experimental force. The article galvanised the Army into action and a public commitment to the force. Collins, a
light infantry Light infantry refers to certain types of lightly equipped infantry throughout history. They have a more mobile or fluid function than other types of infantry, such as heavy infantry or line infantry. Historically, light infantry often fought ...
man, was appointed to command the Experimental Force in April 1927. The Experimental Force was established on 1 May 1927 at Tidworth Camp on
Salisbury Plain Salisbury Plain is a chalk plateau in the south western part of central southern England covering . It is part of a system of chalk downlands throughout eastern and southern England formed by the rocks of the Chalk Group and largely lies wi ...
; after unit training with the new equipment that summer, training of the force as a unit began on 19 August.


Royal Air Force

Milne needed to obtain a measure of co-operation from the RAF;
Hugh Trenchard Marshal of the Royal Air Force Hugh Montague Trenchard, 1st Viscount Trenchard, (3 February 1873 – 10 February 1956) was a British officer who was instrumental in establishing the Royal Air Force. He has been described as the "Father of the ...
,
Marshal of the Royal Air Force Marshal of the Royal Air Force (MRAF) is the highest rank in the Royal Air Force (RAF). In peacetime it was granted to RAF officers in the appointment of Chief of the Defence Staff (CDS), and to retired Chiefs of the Air Staff (CAS), who were ...
and professional head of the RAF, agreed that an expeditionary army of four to five divisions would need 25 to 30 RAF squadrons, far more than the eight squadrons promised in Air Staff Memorandum 25, which determined the RAF army-support contribution. Trenchard insisted that it would not be wise to make promises that might not be called upon for twenty years; the
Air Ministry The Air Ministry was a department of the Government of the United Kingdom with the responsibility of managing the affairs of the Royal Air Force, that existed from 1918 to 1964. It was under the political authority of the Secretary of State ...
did not possess the resources for a fifty-squadron
Air Defence of Great Britain The Air Defence of Great Britain (ADGB) was a RAF command comprising substantial army and RAF elements responsible for the air defence of the British Isles. It lasted from 1925, following recommendations that the RAF take control of homeland air ...
(ADGB, created in 1925) and another fifty squadrons each for the army and the
Royal Navy The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against F ...
. RAF squadrons would have to be multi-purpose and be used as needs dictated. Milne could not base his plans on assumptions about RAF support that might not be forthcoming but Trenchard told Milne that RAF squadrons were trained for tactical and strategic operations. Trenchard said that ten of the ADGB squadrons were mobile and could move with an expeditionary force at once. It would only take two to three weeks to prepare the others, despite the mobile squadrons not being mobile and would not adequately be equipped for years. In spite of the claims by Trenchard to Milne, only the army co-operation squadrons took much notice of air support for ground forces. At the
1926 Imperial Conference The 1926 Imperial Conference was the fifth Imperial Conference bringing together the prime ministers of the Dominions of the British Empire. It was held in London from 19 October to 22 November 1926. The conference was notable for producing the ...
, aircraft dived over moving tanks; the spectacular event was not a realistic exercise but recalled the co-operation during the First World War between the Army, its semi-independent
Royal Flying Corps "Through Adversity to the Stars" , colors = , colours_label = , march = , mascot = , anniversaries = , decorations ...
(RFC) and the
Royal Naval Air Service The Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) was the air arm of the Royal Navy, under the direction of the Admiralty's Air Department, and existed formally from 1 July 1914 to 1 April 1918, when it was merged with the British Army's Royal Flying Corps t ...
(RNAS) which merged to form the RAF on 1 April 1918.


Exercises


Eastland vs. Westland, 1927

In 1927, the EMF (Eastland Force) fought the 3rd Infantry Division (Major-General
John Burnett-Stuart General Sir John Theodosius Burnett-Stuart, (14 March 1875 – 6 October 1958) was a British Army general in the 1920s and 1930s. Military career Educated at Repton School and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, John Burnett-Stuart was comm ...
) and a cavalry brigade (Westland Force), both sides having air support. The opponents began the exercise apart, Westland Force having an objective to capture high ground near
Andover Andover may refer to: Places Australia * Andover, Tasmania Canada * Andover Parish, New Brunswick * Perth-Andover, New Brunswick United Kingdom * Andover, Hampshire, England ** RAF Andover, a former Royal Air Force station United States * Ando ...
against Eastland Force based at
Micheldever Micheldever is a village in Hampshire, England, situated north of Winchester. It lies upon the River Dever . The river, and village, formerly part of Stratton Park, lie on a Hampshire grass downland, underlain with chalk and flint. Parts of th ...
. The Fast Group dodged Westland Force cavalry patrols, covered and captured bridges, which enabled the rest of Eastland Force to advance. Despite a few losses from air attack, the Fast Group armoured cars attacked the vanguard of the Westland Force column and pinned it down for attacks by aircraft at low altitude and a flank attack by the tanks. Eastland Force then camped overnight but Westland Force kept moving. Eastland Force armoured car and
tankette A tankette is a tracked armoured fighting vehicle that resembles a small tank, roughly the size of a car. It is mainly intended for light infantry support and scouting.
reconnaissance parties spotted the move but lacking wireless communication, sent a
despatch rider A despatch rider (or dispatch) is a military messenger, mounted on horse or motorcycle (and occasionally in Egypt during World War I, on camels). In the UK 'despatch rider' is also a term used for a motorcycle courier. Despatch riders were use ...
whose motorcycle broke down. Half of the Westland Force column was over the River Avon before Collins received the information. Part of Westland Force reached the objective on the next day, winning the contest, albeit surrounded and under counter-attack by Eastland Force. After the exercise, Collins discussed the difficulties encountered by the EMF and its vulnerability to anti-tank guns and artillery. Burnett-Stuart said that the tank should no longer be considered an infantry-support weapon but the main arm on the battlefield. The General Staff produced a training memorandum in early 1928 which criticised poor co-ordination in the EMF and its failure to organise sufficient fire support before attacks. During the exercise, 7 Squadron flying
Vickers Virginia The Vickers Virginia was a biplane heavy bomber of the British Royal Air Force, developed from the Vickers Vimy. Design and development Work on the Virginia was started in 1920, as a replacement for the Vimy. Two prototypes were ordered on 13 ...
and
Vimy Vimy ( or ; ; Dutch: ''Wimi'') is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in the Hauts-de-France region of France. Located east of Vimy is the Canadian National Vimy Memorial dedicated to the Battle of Vimy Ridge and the Canadian soldiers ...
bombers and 11 Squadron with its single-engined
Hawker Horsley The Hawker Horsley was a British single-engined biplane bomber of the 1920s. It was the last all-wooden aircraft built by Hawker Aircraft, and served as a medium day bomber and torpedo bomber with Britain's Royal Air Force between 1926 and 1935 ...
bombers, participated briefly; the Horsleys were somewhat large aircraft for low-altitude bombing. The Bristol Fighters of 16 Squadron participated throughout the exercise, while the
Hawker Woodcock The Hawker Woodcock was a British single-seat fighter built by the Hawker Engineering Company as the first fighter to be produced by Hawker Engineering (the successor to Sopwith Aviation). It was used by the RAF as a night fighter in the 1920 ...
fighters of 3 Squadron simulated
strafing Strafing is the military practice of attacking ground targets from low-flying aircraft using aircraft-mounted automatic weapons. Less commonly, the term is used by extension to describe high-speed firing runs by any land or naval craft such ...
attacks. The RAF contingent proved to be of great value to motorised units blocked on roads and infantry pinned down by enemy fire; Collins was convinced of the value of low-level ground attack. Sceptics at the
War Office The War Office was a department of the British Government responsible for the administration of the British Army between 1857 and 1964, when its functions were transferred to the new Ministry of Defence (MoD). This article contains text from ...
doubted the realism of the exercise but other soldiers were enthused by the prospect of a mobile form of military operation superseding trench warfare. At the Air Ministry, Wing Commander Richard Peck, the Deputy Director of the Directorate of Plans (1927 to 1930) pondered the use of aircraft to support mechanised army units making big outflanking manoeuvres, deep into the rear areas of the enemy army, "We cannot throw away this means to victory....". Bombers, reconnaissance aircraft and troop transports would participate; single-seat fighters would be of great value in pursuing a defeated enemy force.


Armoured Force, 1928–1933

The EMF was renamed Armoured Force (AF) and in early 1928 its of fifteen designs, conducted exercises to test the limits of the force. At the end of the year the AF was suspended because the army took the view that little more could be learnt from it as presently constituted. It had been too soon to remedy the deficiencies that had emerged and as the exercises became more ambitious, it was found that the tanks were still very vulnerable to bogging down ("sensitive to ground"); the force was split up for smaller exercises. Milne wanted a year's interval, due to the lack of light tanks and tankettes, necessary for an experimental brigade comprising a battalion of light tanks and tankettes with three battalions of infantry. In the period 1930 to 1931, Milne intended to establish a permanent Armoured Brigade. An experimental Tank Brigade was established, with three battalions of mixed medium and light tanks and a battalion of Carden-Loyd machine-gun carriers, operating as light tanks for reconnaissance but with no supporting arms. Colonel Charles Broad commanded the brigade and concentrated on improving command by using flag signals and radio sets fitted to company and command vehicles. After two weeks the Army Council witnessed a manoeuvre in formation, which was maintained through a bank of fog, a persuasive example of massed armoured manoeuvre.


The Purple Primer, 1929

In March 1929, Broad wrote the first War Office manual about armoured warfare, ''Mechanized and Armoured Formations: (Instructions for Guidance when considering their Action), 1929 (provisional)'', known as the Purple Primer because of its cover. The manual was intended to provide the framework for staff exercises and was a concise yet wide-ranging document which foreshadowed many of the features of armoured operations in the
Second World War World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
. Because equipment and tactics were in flux, officers were told to keep an open mind. The primer contained predictions on the composition, organisation and use of armoured forces. The manual comprised four short chapters on vehicles, organisation, operations and administration. Broad divided vehicles into armoured fighting vehicles (AFVs), armoured troop carriers and soft-skinned carriers, supply vehicles and tractors. AFVs gave an attacker the means to combine fire, manoeuvre and protection, were less vulnerable than conventional units to air attack and gas warfare; AFVs had a great "moral and material effect" on other arms. Broad cautioned that tanks and other armoured vehicles were dependent on supply from a base and limited in cross-country mobility. Static anti-tank guns would always be more powerful than tank-mounted guns and were more accurate than guns fired on the move, a frontal attack on prepared defences would court severe losses unless supported by covering fire. Medium tanks were the most powerful and best used to "destroy the enemy by fire or shock action". The chapter on the organisation of army of the future described cavalry brigades or divisions, light armoured brigades or divisions, medium armoured brigades and infantry divisions which incorporated armoured units. Medium armoured brigades would be the most powerful units in the army, conducting the most important attacks and providing infantry and cavalry support at times, provided that the commander engaged the armoured brigades under the "most favourable conditions". Five pages of the operations chapter described armoured brigades attacking independently; only half a page was devoted to attacks with the cooperation of infantry and cavalry. For an attack on a defensive position, tanks would be part of the attack, protected by machine-gun fire, smoke screens, air and infantry support. The tanks would exploit success by causing a collapse of the opponent's defences and cut supply lines, creating chaos in which mobile warfare leading to decisive results could occur. The chapter on administration dealt with organisation, supply, recovery and repair of vehicles, traffic control and medical services. Armoured units had considerable support needs which were a severe constraint; gleaning food from the countryside was difficult for such fast-moving formations and their needs for fuel, ammunition and spare parts required a separate supply organisation.


Tank Brigade, 1933

The British were the world leaders in tank design and the organisation and use of armoured forces. The in Germany had only a few covert prototype vehicles and had created little in writing about the use of tanks. In the US, tank experiments had only begun and in the USSR, the
Red Army The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army (Russian: Рабо́че-крестья́нская Кра́сная армия),) often shortened to the Red Army, was the army and air force of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and, after ...
had started to develop theories of
deep operation Deep operation (, ''glubokaya operatsiya''), also known as Soviet Deep Battle, was a military theory developed by the Soviet Union for its Soviet Armed Forces, armed forces during the 1920s and 1930s. It was a tenet that emphasized destroying, s ...
s but the best Soviet tanks were Vickers derivatives. In late 1933, the new CIGS, Field Marshal
Archibald Montgomery-Massingberd Field Marshal Sir Archibald Armar Montgomery-Massingberd, (6 December 1871 – 13 October 1947), known as Archibald Armar Montgomery until October 1926, was a senior British Army officer who served as Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS) ...
, established permanently a Tank Brigade under the command of Percy Hobart. In February 1934 Massingberd desired to include a tank brigade and a cavalry division, with mechanised transport and light vehicles for reconnaissance, in a Field Force for continental operations. In October Massingberd decided that the cavalry division should be replaced by a mechanised Mobile Division. In the exercises, bombers and fighters simulated low-altitude ground attacks again and the RAF participation was judged "invaluable". The exercises concentrated on the capacity of an opposing air force to obstruct the advance of British tanks, an important feature of defensive battle. This put the emphasis on finding problems, when the exercise could have concentrated on how friendly air support might speed a British advance. The army had control over the air co-operation squadrons and considered them to be a part of the armoured unit, adding to the work of the armoured car reconnaissance vehicles. Collins became apprehensive of the possibility that an opposing air force might prevent RAF air support or that the support was not forthcoming. Fighters could obtain air superiority to protect the ground force but the RAF could be elsewhere when it was needed, because of the independent status of the RAF. Air support that might or might not materialise could not form the basis of army planning and operations.


1934

On 25 January 1934, Massingberd issued a directive to determine the training of the Tank Brigade which, rather than frontal attacks, emphasised independent operations such as raids and flank attacks. The brigade was to prepare for strategic or quasi-independent attacks on an enemy's organisation behind the front line, by exploiting weakness rather than confronting strengths. The brigade was to examine its ability to manoeuvre en masse, co-operate with the RAF and experiment with the means to supply and maintain the force while moving a day or over three days and then conducting an attack. The Tank Brigade was composed of the
2nd A second is the base unit of time in the International System of Units (SI). Second, Seconds or 2nd may also refer to: Mathematics * 2 (number), as an ordinal (also written as ''2nd'' or ''2d'') * Second of arc, an angular measurement unit ...
,
3rd Third or 3rd may refer to: Numbers * 3rd, the ordinal form of the cardinal number 3 * , a fraction of one third * Second#Sexagesimal divisions of calendar time and day, 1⁄60 of a ''second'', or 1⁄3600 of a ''minute'' Places * 3rd Street (d ...
and 5th battalions of the Royal Tank Corps, each with Vickers medium tanks and tankettes. In May, a staff exercise was conducted to devise methods for deep operations behind an enemy's front line. The opponent had invaded friendly territory and a British counter-offensive was about to begin. The brigade would make a flank move, to attack the enemy's rear organisations behind the front line. The result was a decision to move dispersed on a wide front, to deceive the enemy as to the objective and to evade air attack. The RAF was to co-operate for reconnaissance, air defence, supply and as a substitute for artillery support, which was thought incapable of keeping up. When the brigade began to train as a unit, each medium company had an HQ section of four medium tanks and three mixed companies with a command tank, a section of seven tankettes or light tanks, one section of five medium tanks and a section of two tanks for close support, theoretically carrying guns capable of firing high explosive shells; no tanks were armed like this and Vickers medium tanks were substituted instead. Nearly all the force was tracked and there were no infantry or artillery. Hobart manoeuvred the brigade in a box formation which could make covering about a day and move somewhat more slowly at night. The brigade was so successful that the non-mechanised troops of
Aldershot Command Aldershot () is a town in Hampshire, England. It lies on heathland in the extreme northeast corner of the county, southwest of London. The area is administered by Rushmoor Borough Council. The town has a population of 37,131, while the Alders ...
complained that they were being set up to fail. In September the Tank Brigade was joined by the 7th Infantry Brigade, a brigade of motorised field artillery and supporting units, to make up the Mobile Force, opposed by a non-mechanised infantry division, a brigade of horsed cavalry and two armoured car units.


Battle of Beresford Bridge

In the autumn of 1934, Burnett-Stuart, now general officer commanding (GOC) Aldershot Command, judged the Mobile Force to have neglected supply and devised an exercise to challenge the force. Several objectives behind enemy lines near
Amesbury Amesbury () is a town and civil parish in Wiltshire, England. It is known for the prehistoric monument of Stonehenge which is within the parish. The town is claimed to be the oldest occupied settlement in Great Britain, having been first settle ...
were to be raided and the Mobile Force was to be ready to fight a battle after the raids. The exercise required a long approach march from an assembly area and the crossing of a defended obstacle, the
Kennet and Avon Canal The Kennet and Avon Canal is a waterway in southern England with an overall length of , made up of two lengths of navigable river linked by a canal. The name is used to refer to the entire length of the navigation rather than solely to the cent ...
. The exercise was to begin at on 19 September against the 1st Infantry Division (Major-General John Kennedy), which left only four hours of darkness, insufficient for the move to be completed before daybreak. Lindsay had no command staff and several members of the Tank Brigade and the 7th Infantry Brigade staffs were at odds. The first plan was for an advance on a wide front with mixed units of armoured cars, light tanks, motorised infantry and the Vickers Medium Tanks. The faster vehicles would arrive at the canal and seize crossings for the medium tanks to cross as they arrived. The raids would begin at dawn on the next day; Hobart rejected plan because it required the division of the Tank Brigade into mixed columns. The Mobile Force planned a wide flank move at night, around rather than through the enemy, then a daytime lay up for maintenance, followed by the raids on day three. Burnett-Stuart had doubts about the plan because of its supply implications and the plan was revised for the 7th Infantry Brigade to capture the canal crossings on day one, the Tank Brigade to cross that night and the plans for the raids to be decided later. The Mobile Force began its advance from Gloucester, west of the River Severn, to break through the defenders' positions at
Hungerford Hungerford is a historic market town and civil parish in Berkshire, England, west of Newbury, east of Marlborough, northeast of Salisbury and 60 miles (97 km) west of London. The Kennet and Avon Canal passes through the town alongside the ...
. The infantry brigade made a night move across the front of the defenders and captured easily the crossings. The infantry brigade was bombed while waiting for the Tank Brigade to move during the night. When the tanks arrived, the element of surprise was gone and the Mobile Force faced powerful opposition. During the afternoon of 20 September, umpires judged that the Mobile Force was compelled to retire by air attack; Kennedy sent out armoured cars and his cavalry
sortie A sortie (from the French word meaning ''exit'' or from Latin root ''surgere'' meaning to "rise up") is a deployment or dispatch of one military unit, be it an aircraft, ship, or troops, from a strongpoint. The term originated in siege warfare. ...
d to the north, planting mines and blocking roads, which made the retreat of the Mobile Force most difficult. Despite the partiality of the umpires, the Mobile Force split up and managed to retreat, bypassing many of the obstacles.


Analysis


Exercises

The Battle of Beresford Bridge was condemned by Liddell Hart in his 1959 publication ''The Tanks: The History of the Royal Tank Regiment and its Predecessors Heavy Branch Machine-Gun Corps Tank Corps & Royal Tank Corps 1914–1945'' who purported that the rules had been biased against the Mobile Force and claimed that its defeat had an unfortunate effect on the development of armoured forces and on Lindsay's career, who before this exercise had "trapped a larger force...by the boldness and skill by which he had manoeuvred his mobile elements". In 1995, J. P. Harris wrote that the favourable attitude of the General Staff had not been changed by the exercise. Hobart had played down the rigging of the exercise to restore the morale of the un-mechanised troops, because it was necessary and supported the umpires because, Lindsay had little influence in mechanisation policy after the exercise; he was judged to have failed and was severely criticised by Burnett-Stuart at the debriefing after the exercise, a severe humiliation. Despite retaining the confidence of Montgomery-Massingberd, Lindsay's reputation was irreparably damaged. Lindsay had not been helped by Hobart being awkward at times, at one point almost refusing to continue because the exercise had become so farcical, yet Burnett-Stuart praised him.Harris wrote that by 1933, Lindsay had become the most clear-sighted member of the tank lobby, believing that the Tank Brigade should become part of an "all-arms mechanised division" and had devised the best scheme for its organisation. Harris wrote that the views of Lindsay were the reason for Montgomery-Massingberd deciding in October 1934 to form a mobile division. By late 1937 enough equipment had been produced to establish the Mobile Division, which evolved into the 7th Armoured Division. In 2014, John Plant wrote that the exercises in England had been unrealistic operations on Salisbury Plain or road-bound, with no obstructions from demolitions or anti-tank obstacles like minefields, broken bridges, rivers, defiles and ridges. With no need of engineers to overcome obstacles, there had been no need to gain control of an area with infantry.


The future British Army, 1935

On 9 September 1935, Montgomery-Massingberd promulgated the plan "The Future Reorganisation of the British Army" for the creation of armoured forces. Part I contained an analysis of the First World War, predicted the form of another war with Germany and specified how a Field Force should be organised, equipped and trained for continental warfare. The section drew on the Kirke Report (1932) into the lessons of the Great War, which found that the static warfare of the Western Front had been caused by the firepower of modern weapons and the superiority of defensive methods. At the start of the war the Army had a machine-gun for every three hundred soldiers and by the end, one for every twenty men. The General Staff described the part played by tanks and aircraft in breaking the stalemate in late 1918 and called them the weapons of the future. Tanks could overcome barbed wire covered by small-arms fire; aircraft enabled an attacker to advance into the
hinterland Hinterland is a German word meaning "the land behind" (a city, a port, or similar). Its use in English was first documented by the geographer George Chisholm in his ''Handbook of Commercial Geography'' (1888). Originally the term was associated ...
, beyond the zone covered by artillery. In Part II, the peacetime responsibilities of the Army and its extra-continental commitments were laid down, along with the organisation of the Territorial Army. Part III contained general conclusions. The General Staff had decided by the mid-30s that a horsed cavalry division would be useless in a continental war and that the importance of tank and other armoured formations could not be overestimated. Montgomery-Massingberd wrote that the was one of the most important changes in the Army since 1918. Tanks and armoured vehicles were, The General Staff also wrote a "Forecast of the Opening Stages of a War with Germany" (1935) in which the First World War was considered to have left European states certain that a long war would be calamitous, even for the winning side. Germany was thought to be making "strenuous endeavours" to fight quick wars by mobile operations. The French were thought to have planned a defensive strategy for the beginning of a war and that the Germans could attack with a small, mobile force against a small portion of the
Maginot Line The Maginot Line (french: Ligne Maginot, ), named after the French Minister of War André Maginot, is a line of concrete fortifications, obstacles and weapon installations built by France in the 1930s to deter invasion by Germany and force the ...
, bypass the line via Switzerland or through the
Low Countries The term Low Countries, also known as the Low Lands ( nl, de Lage Landen, french: les Pays-Bas, lb, déi Niddereg Lännereien) and historically called the Netherlands ( nl, de Nederlanden), Flanders, or Belgica, is a coastal lowland region in N ...
. The General Staff concluded that the only real prospect for quick success was by invading through
the Netherlands ) , anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau") , image_map = , map_caption = , subdivision_type = Sovereign state , subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands , established_title = Before independence , established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
and
Belgium Belgium, ; french: Belgique ; german: Belgien officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. The country is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to th ...
. The General Staff wanted to dispatch the first echelon of the Field Force, comprising four infantry divisions and a mechanised mobile division. The troops were to arrive swiftly enough to prevent the Germans from occupying all of the Low Countries. Depth would be provided for the air defence of Britain and British bombers would be able to fly from Continental bases. The British Army would "provide sufficient moral and material support to our Allies" to keep the Germans out of the western Netherlands and western Belgium.


Order of battle

* Flank
Reconnaissance In military operations, reconnaissance or scouting is the exploration of an area by military forces to obtain information about enemy forces, terrain, and other activities. Examples of reconnaissance include patrolling by troops (skirmisher ...
Group ** 3rd Battalion
Royal Tank Corps The Royal Tank Regiment (RTR) is the oldest tank unit in the world, being formed by the British Army in 1916 during the First World War. Today, it is the armoured regiment of the British Army's 12th Armoured Infantry Brigade. Formerly known as t ...
(RTC, Lieutenant-Colonel
Frederick Pile General (United Kingdom), General Sir Frederick Alfred Pile, 2nd Baronet, (14 September 1884 – 14 November 1976) was a senior British Army officer who served in both World Wars. In the Second World War he was General Officer Commanding An ...
), HQ, two armoured car companies, one of two sections with four cars each and one of three sections of four cars each * Main Reconnaissance Group ** 3rd Battalion RTC, four sections comprising eight
Carden Loyd tankette The Carden Loyd tankettes were a series of British tankettes of the period between the World Wars, the most successful of which was the Mark VI, the only version built in significant numbers. It became a classic tankette design worldwide, was l ...
s and eight Morris-Martel tankettes (one-man tankette designed by Martel) * 5th Battalion RTC (Lieutenant-Colonel C. A. Bolton) ** 45
Vickers Medium Mark II The Vickers Medium Mark II was a British tank built by Vickers in the Inter-war period. The Medium Mark II, derived from the Vickers Medium Mark I, was developed to replace the last of the Medium Mark Cs still in use. Production and rebuilding ...
tanks ** 1 Radio telephone section with 4 wireless tanks * 2nd Battalion
Somerset Light Infantry The Somerset Light Infantry (Prince Albert's) was a light infantry regiment of the British Army, which served under various titles from 1685 to 1959. In 1959, the regiment was amalgamated with the Duke of Cornwall's Light Infantry to form the Some ...
(Lieutenant-Colonel H. I. R. Allfrey) **
Machine gun A machine gun is a fully automatic, rifled autoloading firearm designed for sustained direct fire with rifle cartridges. Other automatic firearms such as automatic shotguns and automatic rifles (including assault rifles and battle rifles) a ...
battalion (
Vickers machine gun The Vickers machine gun or Vickers gun is a Water cooling, water-cooled .303 British (7.7 mm) machine gun produced by Vickers Limited, originally for the British Army. The gun was operated by a three-man crew but typically required more me ...
s in
Crossley Crossley, based in Manchester, United Kingdom, was a pioneering company in the production of internal combustion engines. Since 1988 it has been part of the Rolls-Royce Power Engineering group. More than 100,000 Crossley oil and gas engines ...
- Kégresse half-tracks and six-wheel Morrises. * 9th Field Brigade
Royal Artillery The Royal Regiment of Artillery, commonly referred to as the Royal Artillery (RA) and colloquially known as "The Gunners", is one of two regiments that make up the artillery arm of the British Army. The Royal Regiment of Artillery comprises t ...
(Lieutenant-Colonel C. R. B. Carrington) ** QF 18 pounder field guns,
QF 4.5 inch Howitzer The Ordnance QF 4.5-inch howitzer was the standard British Empire field (or ‘light’) howitzer of the First World War era. It replaced the BL 5-inch howitzer and equipped some 25% of the field artillery. It entered service in 1910 and remai ...
s 2 batteries towed by Dragon tractors, 1 battery towed by Crossley-Kégresse half-tracks) ** 20
Battery Battery most often refers to: * Electric battery, a device that provides electrical power * Battery (crime), a crime involving unlawful physical contact Battery may also refer to: Energy source *Automotive battery, a device to provide power t ...
(self-propelled
Birch Gun The Birch Gun was the first practical British self-propelled artillery gun, built at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich in 1925. Despite proving itself a practical proposition the Birch Gun was never highly regarded by the British High Command, not ...
s) ** 9th Light Battery, Royal Artillery ( 3.7-inch mountain howitzers portée on Burford-Kégresse half-tracks) * 17th Field Company
Royal Engineers The Corps of Royal Engineers, usually called the Royal Engineers (RE), and commonly known as the ''Sappers'', is a corps of the British Army. It provides military engineering and other technical support to the British Armed Forces and is heade ...
(Major
Giffard Le Quesne Martel Lieutenant-General Sir Giffard Le Quesne Martel (10 October 1889 – 3 September 1958) was a British Army officer who served in both the First and Second World Wars. Familiarly known as "Q Martel" or just "Q", he was a pioneering British militar ...
) ** Mounted in 6-wheeler vehicles Attachments (occasional) * 2nd Battalion
Cheshire Regiment The Cheshire Regiment was a line infantry regiment of the British Army, part of the Prince of Wales' Division. The 22nd Regiment of Foot was raised by the Duke of Norfolk in 1689 and was able to boast an independent existence of over 300 years. T ...
(Lieutenant-Colonel E. G. Hamilton) mechanized infantry battalion, first line transport of half-tracks and six-wheelers, with a ''bus-column'' of lorries for exercises with the EMF * No. 16 (Army co-operation) Squadron * No. 3 (Fighter) Squadron * No. 11 (Bombing) Squadron


Notes


Footnotes


References

* * * * * * * * * * * * *


Further reading

* * * * * * * * * (known as the Kirke Report) * * *


External links


Crossley Kégresse vehicles

Cranston, J. German and British Experimentation in the 1920s and 30s Inspired Emergence of US Armor Force

Coast Artillery Journal Volume 67, Number 5, November 1927, EMF p. 439

Mobility, Shock and Firepower CMH Pub no. 30–23–1 2008 pp. 32–34
{{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103151010/http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/Mobility_Shock_and_Firepower/CMH_30-23-1.pdf , date=3 January 2017 Ad hoc units and formations of the British Army Military units and formations established in 1927 Armoured units and formations of the British Army History of the tank